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Introduction
The Kings of the Third dynasty of Ur (2112-2004 B.C.) declared themselves
and their city descended from the semi-divine heroes Enmerkar, Lugalbanda
and Gilgamesh, who lived around 2700 B.C, and whose tales were at first
transmitted orally, and were much modified. During the Third Dynasty they
may have been first codified, written down and spread. But our earliest
discovered versions come from 18th and 17th centuries B.C. The Epics of
Enmerkar and Lugalbanda deal with historical events of the 4th and 3rd
millennia B. C. (4th millennia = 3999 to 3000 B.C., 3rd 2999-2000 B. C.
They are historical epics that tell of relations between Mesopotamia and
Iran. It appears that Gilgamesh himself was a real person, the leader of
a proto-literate Uruk of around 2700 B.C.
When the Babylonians (who spoke Akkadian) took over, little more
than the Epic of Gilgamesh was translated. The Gilgamesh Epic is more than
a story about a strong man or a great king. It is also a meditation on
life, on how we live in the face of death, our relationship to the gods
and fate, the nature of the afterlife, heroism, a person’s place in society,
the value of civilization, friendship and much else. The Gilgamesh epic
was translated into a number of Middle Eastern languages, like Canaanite
and Hittite, and eventually into Assyrian, where our fullest version exists,
written probably 668-27 B.C. at Nineveh.In the process of the
transmission of the legends of Gilgamesh, various other stories were inserted
and other, originally independent tales added.
Tablet I
Note how the beginning of the Epic of Gilgamesh stresses Gilgamesh’
experience, one who has visited the underworld and lived to tell about
it. Odysseus as a man who has traveled, suffered and learned will be stress
in the beginning of the Odyssey. Note how also this introduction suggests
that this story may be like an inscription of a King; Mesopotamian Kings
often set up huge inscriptions detailing the triumphs of their reigns.
Gilgamesh is also type of hero that goes on the Quest, where a person
leaves his home, meets magic helpers, does great deeds and
then returns home with benefits to his community (usually) and new status.
Around line 30 begins a hymn to Gilgamesh, like one of the hymns
that are seen in the Old Testament. Notice what aspects of Gilgamesh’s
heroism is stressed; he is a hero that has both experienced glory and the
extremes of human existence.
Gilgamesh is two-thirds god; often heroes of ancient epics (like
Achilles) are of such parentage. But notice how Gilgamesh is not at first
a great and good ruler, but spends his time raising hell, taking other's
wives etc. . Perhaps he is a hero who has too much time on his hands,
who has not yet learned that he must do heroic deeds. He is a hero that
lacks any real social connection. This need to get heroes to act heroic
is the subject of other early Mesopotamian Epics. In the Epic of Erra the
gods are involved in trying make Erra go out and fight instead of staying
at home having a party. The question is: what motivation do we need
to act in the public good?
Enkidu is created as an opponent for Gilgamesh, to harness Gilgamesh’s
terrible energy, and, perhaps accidentally, set him on the path of heroic
deeds. He will be a friend to Gilgamesh, to connect him to society.
Notice that originally Enkidu is a wild man. This figure may originate
in Mesopotamian speculations about the nature of the early ‘savage’ man.
It also sets up a question that the epic deals with: what is the
value of civilization? In many myths there is a sense that in pre-civilized
Eden human beings were much closer to animals and happier that way. Civilization
brings discontent. Notice how Enkidu will, on his deathbed,
briefly curse the temple girl who made him a civilized person. Notice that,
after Enkidu's death Gilgamesh will leave the city and wander in outside
like a wild man.
The father of the hunter who advises that the women be sent to
seduce Enkidu is probably a representation of a primitive witch-doctor
or shaman, who in hunting communities was in charge of the ritual
and hunting-magic that was designed to lead to a successful hunt.
A prostitute is sent to seduce Enkidu. Notice how this episode
corresponds to primal myths that connect sexual knowledge with good and
evil and civilization. In Genesis Satan promises Eve that, if she
eats the apple, she will gain knowledge and be as a god. Notice she tells
Enkidu, after she has mated with him, that he is like a god. The prostitute
was an attendant of the temple. Goddesses such as Ishtar had sacred temple
prostitutes, who, by mating with men, reenacted the sacred marriage of
Earth and Sky and helped bring fertility to the world. Notice how in some
respect Enkidu is weakened after the encounter. Remember the Hebrew story
of Samson and Deliah. Samson was something of a wild man (note he never
cuts his hair) whom a prostitute seduces and weakens. But at the same time
Enkidu begins to long for a friend, for human companionship. This is a
notable theme of the whole poem. The point is that only human beings, not
animals, can enjoy friendship, which is a good recompense for the loss
of animal innocence. And, at the end of Tablet I, Gilgamesh too is given
a dream where it is revealed the coming of one who is to be his great friend.
He rejoices in it. Further, notice how in Column V the prostitute
praises the ways of the city -- there is a real glorification of the deeds
of humankind, another important theme of the poem.
Notice how Gilgamesh is continually talking with his goddess-mother
Ninsun. In the beginning of Homer's Iliad, for Achilles too is protected
and advised by his mother Thetis. The dreams that he has is also part of
the epic machinery that foreshadows what must come.
Tablet II
Notice in Tablet II, how, as Enkidu approaches the city, he begins
to adopt civilized ways and actions, such as fighting the savage beasts
that he once ran with, and to eat and drink. Again, this may be a parable
of how mankind rose from savagery; first they begin to wear clothes, then
start using weapons, then to eat and drink (probably meaning eating and
drinking processed food, not raw materials), and then finally begin to
observe customs, that is, civil laws -- which Gilgamesh is violating. This
brings Enkidu and Gilgamesh to blows, and then friendship -- perhaps a
type of male bonding? The point is that they have discovered in each other
equals, the basis of community and friendship. The point seems to me is
that people need others, and society, in order to fully express their
potential and humanity.
Tablet III
Once Gilgamesh has found Enkidu, a strong friendship is formed.
This is the first stage of Gilgamesh’s moral development. He is no longer
so alone, and, now understanding and experiencing friendship (which always
takes one somewhat outside oneself) can now turn to greater, indeed epic,
exploits. In the Homeric and later epics, there is a great emphasis on
the immortality of deeds that will live in history. This is what all heroes
crave, and this is what Gilgamesh and Enkidu go after.
But (and the text is fragmentary here) Shamash, the Sun god,
who is here something of a god concerned with justice, has also incited
Gilgamesh against Humbaba. Shamash is a bit like the Greek god Apollo,
the oracle and advice giving god supreme among the Greeks, who later becomes
identified with the Sun. Humbaba is originally a monstrous herdsman
that lives at the edge of the world, rather like Geryon in Greek myth,
whom Heracles conquered. But in the later versions of the Gilgamesh myth
Humbaba is also Evil personified. The Great One is Gilgamesh’s mother Ninsun.
The journey of Gilgamesh in order to kill a monster is the archetypal
journey of the Hero to fight monsters and restore the world, or at least
bring back a boon to his community. Heracles was such a primitive
strong man. These heroes (whose parents are on one side or another divine)
occur in many myths, and often must clean up the monsters left over from
an earlier period of creation. These Quests often take place at the edge
of the normal world, where the dark wood that Gilgamesh journeys to is
located. In modern myth we need a starship to take us to the Delta Quadrant.
The Universe has gotten bigger.
Enkidu seems reluctant to face Humbaba. Notice in column III,
the reference to glory -- the traditional epic reward. Notice how in column
IV the two heroes seem to think nothing of the possibility of dying. Their
attitudes are rather like those of the young Achilles, who was offered
the choice of either a short life with glory or a long life with glory,
and who chose a short life with glory, a choice Achilles may regret later,
as Gilgamesh will realize later the value of living vs. glory. This is
a statement of the heroic code, in which a warrior, to gain status, power,
fame, always must fight in the front lines. The trouble is that this can
get you killed. Death seems abstract, but later, when Gilgamesh sees Enkidu
die, he begins to wonder whether glory is worth death.
Tablet IV
Note the traditional, formulaic language that details the stages
of their journey. This is characteristic of much early poetry. Notice also
in Column V the references to "promises we make in the city where we live."
This is perhaps a standard reference to the heroic code; we shall see a
similar exposition in the Iliad. The point is that the aristocrats get
the finest positions in the city because they promise to always fight with
utmost honor and bravery.
Many of the details of this first battle scene have probably
been lost. It appears that in fighting some beast or monster that was guarding
the portal to this region, Enkidu's hand was crushed.
Tablet V
This scene, where they look upon the wonderful cedar forest and the
home of the gods (rather like a garden of Eden) again indicates that, in
mythological terms, they are at the edge of the world, where in myth the
early stage of the world's perfection may still exist. Such paradises often
have monstrous watchmen to guard them, and Humbaba probably performs this
function.
Column II and III detail the various dreams that the adventurers
have. This is another element of early myth, one that we shall see more
in the Odyssey than the Iliad. In the traditional heroic tale, often the
hero who goes into the wilderness or wood to fight monsters finds a magic
or divine helper, who sometimes gives advice by omens or dreams. The fact
that they receive such omens indicates their elevated status and favor
with the gods. In Greek myth Athena and Hermes are the chief helpers of
heroes.
Notice that the god Shamash helps the heroes win by sending the
wind against Humbaba. This is significant for a number of reasons. In another
Mesopotamian creation myth, the supreme god Marduk destroys the Tiamat,
the great but monstrous goddess with the weapon of the winds, (such as
here is also used against Humbaba) and he later uses her body
to create the universe.
At this point it might be asked if the fact that the gods help
the heroes in some way diminishes the glory of the heroes, like Athena
helping Achilles destroy Hector during their final duel. While it may seem
that way to us, it was not the case for the hearers of Epic. The fact that
the gods helped was a sign of their superiority. Gods only help winners,
and ensure that the successful result that must happen will happen.
In Column VI Humbaba screams for mercy, but is ignored. Notice
how Enkidu is the one who wants to kill him and persuades Gilgamesh. This
is part of a tragic pattern -- a person should enjoy success, but must
not go too far, Soon Enkidu will die. Likewise in the aftermath of the
sack of Troy, in which the Greeks were excessive and committed terrible
crimes, various Greeks (like Odysseus) will suffer terrible hardships.
Notice that Humbaba promises Gilgamesh all the lumber he wants.
This probably reflects that this story is in part based on the great and
legendary military campaigns the leaders of Uruk would have made to get
lumber from other parts of the Middle east, like Lebanon.
Tablet VI
This tablet begins with a tableau showing Gilgamesh having received
all his glory. Note now that he has performed heroic deeds he is loved,
not hated by his people. Again, Gilgamesh has matured, and we see the new
status that results from his quest.
Then Ishtar desires Gilgamesh. Ishtar is the great goddess of
love and war. She is one of the great eastern Mother goddesses. Such goddesses
would take each year a male consort (= lover) who would last only the year.
His death would symbolize the death of the crops at the end of the growing
season. Notice how Gilgamesh abuses her, telling of all the various consorts
that have come to bad ends. Note the reference to Tammuz, who is mentioned
in the Old Testament. He is one of the best known consorts of the Mother
goddess (who I believe is called Astarte in the Bible). The Old Testament
prophets complain about the women of Israel "weeping after Tammuz" to celebrate
the yearly death of the consort.
Ishtar, then insulted, goes to complain to Anu. Anu is the primal
creation God, but he, like Uranus in Greek myth, is more or less retired.
But Ishtar, unlike Aphrodite, (who will complain to Zeus when she is insulted,
indeed wounded, by the Greek Hero Diomedes) still has considerable power,
and can force the gods to relent due to the fact that Ishtar also has underworld
powers, and can thus threaten to turn the dead loose upon the Earth.
The result is the Bull from Heaven, who is rather like the personified
force of the Earthquake. Needless to say, such monsters also are seen in
the exploits of great heroes like Heracles. The Bull is slain, and again
there is tragic excess; Enkidu, again acting past what is proper,
hurls the thigh of the animal at Ishtar.
At the same time there is another level of fertility myth and
ritual here. Notice how Gilgamesh takes the bull’s horns and covers them
with lapis lazuli. They become like the Horns of Consecration seen in many
Middle Eastern and Mediterranean civilizations (such as in Crete or among
the Hittites), and also somewhat like the Cornucopia, the Horn of Plenty.
The Bull as symbol of fertility and power is widespread. Zeus, for example,
before seducing Europa, comes to her in the shape of a bull, before he
carries her to Crete.
Thus these pages the flavor of a etiological myth, that is, a
myth that explains the origin of a ritual practice. Here Gilgamesh is shown
to progress by creating an important ritual for his people.
Tablet VII
Tablet VII opens up with a council of the Gods to determine the
fates of Gilgamesh and Enkidu. We shall see in many places (for example
the opening of the Odyssey) such councils of Gods. Enkidu must die. As
Enkidu wastes away Gilgamesh realizes (as part of his maturing process)
the real consequence of death. Enkidu then begins to curse the hunter and
lover that introduced him to civilization. This scene can be read not only
as part of Enkidu’s regrets, but as part of a meditation on the value of
civilization. Notice that then, as now, there was a myth that somehow civilization
is corrupting, that we were all better when we were hunter-gatherers. But
Shamash, the Sun god, points out how Enkidu has enjoyed the benefits of
civilization. Civilization gave Enkidu both fine clothes, glory and, most
importantly, friendship. And Enkidu, as part of his final maturation, lets
go of his anger and dies in peace. The value of civilization has triumphed.
However, at the end of the tablet Enkidu seems to have some last
momentary regrets that he could not die in a heroic way. This is inspired
in part by a vision of the afterlife. The Mesopotamians, like the early
Hebrews, thought that the underworld was a place of darkness and misery.
This end is probably part of an earlier, more pessimistic version of the
poem that was so much a part of the poem that it was left in, although
it doesn’t quite agree with what came before it. This is even more true
of the story of the Death of Enkidu in Tablet XII, about which more later
Tablet VIII
Gilgamesh grieves terribly for Enkidu, as Achilles will grieve
over Patroclus. Like Achilles, he feels somewhat responsible for his friend’s
death. This section is probably part of a funeral hymn. It also signals
the beginning of Gilgamesh’s struggle to come to terms with death and its
finality and how to live life with that knowledge. In Column IV of tablet
VIII (which is so fragmentary that the translator does not bother with
it) Gilgamesh strips off his royal clothes and himself becomes like a pre-civilized
man. The significant part goes something like this:
And I myself, after you [Enkidu] are buried, will cause my body to wear
long hair
I will clothe myself with the skin of a lion and will roam over the
desert...
It is interesting to note that Heracles, the great Greek hero, is likewise
clothed with a lion skin. Both Heracles and Gilgamesh (as well as Samson)
are primeval strong men. I suspect that Gilgamesh too has, like Enkidu,
doubted the value of civilization. In a sense too Gilgamesh, out of his
grief, becomes like Enkidu. as a memorial to him.
At the end of Tablet VIII Gilgamesh is apparently celebrating the funeral
of Enkidu.
Tablet IX
Now Gilgamesh realizes that he too will die and become as Enkidu is.
He is unsettled and wanders in the woods like a beast. He also is now determined
to find immortality. Here begins the typical Quest for Immortality,
or perhaps the Journey to the Underworld, or to the Realm of the Gods.
Odysseus will make such a journey in book X of the Odyssey, as Aeneas will
in book VI of the Aeneid. It represents the confrontation of a human
being with the powers of death. The great heroes (a hero as one who explores
the extremes of the human condition) is one who can challenge those powers,
and live to tell about it. Remember how the beginning of this Epic stressed
this aspect of Gilgamesh.
This journey also involves a trip to the edges of the earth,
probably the West. This edge of the world is often guarded by fabulous
monsters (Here there be Dragons), like the Scorpion-men. But, surprisingly,
they do not threaten Gilgamesh, probably because of his divine parentage.
But what they do stress (as will various other characters that Gilgamesh
is to meet) is that his quest is ultimately futile. This is the lesson
that he must learn.
In Column VI Gilgamesh meets Siduri, the divine barmaid. She
is comparable to the Circe figure Odysseus will meet, who will tell him
how to get to the underworld. She is another one of the divine helpers
that a hero meets in his Quest.
Tablet X
Siduri is one who gives ‘lifesaving drinks’; she is thus something of
a witch, again like Circe in the Odyssey. We will see how, after Circe
has turn Odysseus’ crew back into men, they are actually younger and better
looking than before. Gilgamesh recounts the reason for his mission. He
is still obsessed with death. Notice the answer that Siduri gives in Column
III. The lesson is that humans must die, and it is best for human
to eat, drink and be merry in this life. Notice that her words somewhat
resembles the advice of the Preacher in Ecclesiastes. But Gilgamesh does
not listen. However, some commentators suggest, in an older version, Gilgamesh
may have actually spent considerable time with Siduri, like Odysseus
did with Circe.
Again, when Gilgamesh meets the immortal ferryman Urshanabi,
all he can do is repeat his fear of death. At some point Gilgamesh destroys
some objects of stone, the significance of which is lost. It is probably
an indication of his excessive behavior. But it does persuade Urshanabi
to help. Then they travel over the Waters of Death. Urshanabi is not really
a ferryman of the Dead, like Charon in Greek myth. He is rather like the
Phaecians in the Odyssey, who have the ability with their magical ships
to transport humans from the normal world to the fairy-land where Odysseus
wanders and has fantastic adventures -- including visiting the dead.
Finally, Gilgamesh meets Utnapishtim, who is something like Noah
in the Book of Genesis. Gilgamesh repeats the horrors of his journey, but
Utnapishtim cannot help him. In fact, his advice is rather pessimistic,
that only Fate and Chance govern the lives of men. This advice accords
with the Epic’s continual preoccupation with speculating on humanity’s
place in the universe. It is not good.
Tablet XI
Gilgamesh asks how Utnapishtim has managed to achieve immortality. Here
a later editor has inserted the Flood story which was originally not part
of the Gilgamesh Epic, but, because it so powerfully reflected on the questions
raised in the Epic, was later included. It was apparently from an earlier
epic called the Atrahasis Epic. The reason for the flood is not given in
this account, but in other version it is simply because of Enlil’s hate
and the fact that humans are just making too much noise.
This translation does not make the whole Flood story clear. Apparently
the gods, after deciding to destroy man, forbade Ea (who is a trickster
god, rather like Prometheus the friend of man in Greek mythology) to tell
people what was going to happen. But, as a trick, Ea told the story to
a bunch of reeds -- with Utnapishtim just happening be standing by listening.
Likewise, Ea advises Utnapishtim to get his fellow citizens to build the
Ark by convincing them the Ark is going to be used to get him to Ea, who
will throw for them a great New Year’s party at which there will be wonderful
blessings.
Enlil becomes furious at what has happened and the fact that
some humans have survived. Apparently what Ea does is to convince Enlil
to send various evils upon the earth rather than to simply destroy mankind
all at once. This may be a myth that explains the appearance of evils in
the world. There was probably in the Middle East (as was reflected by the
Greek poet Hesiod) a myth of the four ages of Man, each one worse than
the one before, each destroyed by a catastrophe. Enlil due to these special
circumstances, makes Utnapishtim immortal. Dilmun, where Utnapishtim survives,
is rather like the Islands of the Blest in Greek myth.
Thus ends the flood story. Utnapishtim then proposes a test for
Gilgamesh, which will prove to him that, under ordinary circumstances human
nature is not made for immortality. He says Gilgamesh must stay awake for
seven days. To not to sleep is symbolic of not dying. Needless to say,
Gilgamesh falls asleep at once. Notice that Urshanabi is told that he will
not be able to transport people again. This episode probably corresponds
to the last scene in the Odyssey with the Phaecians, whose magic ship is
turned to stone by the god Poseidon, out of anger for carrying Odysseus
back to his homeland. Notice too how finally Gilgamesh is cleaned up and
dressed as a King by Utnapishtim. This scene ties in with another theme
we shall explore in the Odyssey, that of identity, its loss and
recapture. One can argue that, when Gilgamesh strips off his kingly attire
and starts wandering around in the wastelands at the edge of the world,
he has lost his identity; he is for all practical purposes no longer King
Gilgamesh, just as Odysseus, when he is wandering far from Ithaca, is no
longer king. When, at the end of his wanderings, Odysseus finally arrives
at Phaecia (which, like the land in which Utnapishtim dwells, is a Utopia
at the edge of the world) he is naked and caked with sea salt. After he
has told his story, he wins full approval of the Phaecians and their King.
Then they load him with gifts and feast him. It is during this moment that
Odysseus begins to regain his identity. Similarly, when Gilgamesh
is dressed up like a King, we can see that Gilgamesh too is beginning to
regain his identity.
But there is one more misfortune, which has strong folk tale
elements in it. The wife of Utnapishtim wants to give Gilgamesh a consolation
prize, that is a plant that restores youth. But a snake eats it -- which
explains why snakes shed their skin and thus (they thought) can become
young again.
At the end of tablet XI that we see that Gilgamesh has learned
his lesson. He points out to Urshanabi the wonderful walls of Uruk, instead
of just obsessing about death. This signals that finally Gilgamesh
has reconciled himself to living with the knowledge that he must die, and
instead is now focusing on the good we can do in this life, on carrying
out the role we are given, which for a King is to build and manage a fine
city.
Tablet XII
As mentioned above, Tablet XII is part of a different account of the
death of Enkidu, one that contradicts the earlier account. As your text
notes, it was included because of its description of the afterlife -- which
is very pessimistic. Apparently Gilgamesh has dropped some magic objects
into the underworld, and Enkidu volunteers to make a death-journey (like
a great Hero) to get them. In folktale and myth such journeys are surrounded
by various commands about what you must not do in the underworld (don’t
eat the food, don’t give help to a corpse, etc. ). And Gilgamesh tells
him what not to do, and Enkidu does exactly the opposite. Again here too
(as above) Enkidu acts arrogantly against the infernal powers and pays
the price. But his spirit is allowed to return, to give a rather gloomy
view of the underworld. Note one of the lessons toward the end -- that
the man who is happen in the underworld is the man with many sons, who
presumably tend his grave and make the proper sacrifices to the dead. Perhaps
this tablet provides an answer to the previous tablet. Maybe we personally
cannot be immortal, but we can live again through our children. Plus the
bleakness of the underworld is lightened by the existence of children.
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